Everyone is Responsible - Rape Myths, Bystanders, and the Persistence of Sexual Assault
By Morgan Richard, University of New Brunswick
Historically, individuals victimized by sexual violence have been silenced and left without support for their trauma. Recently, a spotlight of public concern has revealed sexual assault to be one of the most common acts of violence experienced by young women. University students are particularly at risk, with one in five women experiencing sexual assault while attending university [1]. The combination of being in the gender and age group at greatest risk for sexual assault, the party culture associated with university, higher rates of alcohol consumption, and higher rates of incapacitated sexual assault put university women at significant risk for becoming victimized by sexual assault.
The consequences of sexual assault often extend far beyond the incident itself. Depression, suicidality, anxiety, and trouble sleeping are common social and emotional difficulties that individuals face after being assaulted. There are also academic consequences of being assaulted. Women who have been sexually assaulted before entering university, on average, have lower grade point averages than do those who have not been victimized [2].
Rates of sexual assault have remained fairly constant despite decades of information campaigns and prevention efforts. The critical question has since become: What factors best help us understand university students’ experiences of sexual assault? The perpetuation of rape myths have been identified as one such factor.
Rape myths are beliefs that decriminalize sexual assault and hold victims of sexual assault accountable for the perpetrator’s actions [3]. Examples of rape myths include: Men don’t usually intend to force sex on a woman, but sometimes they get too sexually carried away; A lot of women lead men on and then cry rape; and Women tend to exaggerate how much rape affects them [4]. The endorsement of rape myths by victimized individuals may result in belief that the incident was their fault or that the incident will not be taken seriously when reported. In contrast, endorsement of rape myths by perpetrators may lead them to excuse their behavior, believe they cannot control their behavior, or may prevent them from seeing the viciousness of their actions. Further, rape myth endorsement is a predictor of sexual violence perpetration [5].
Despite efforts to shift the perceived value of women to society, rape myths continue to be frequently endorsed. Current popular music lyrics, movies, and television shows are polluted with the degradation and sexualization of women, contributing to the acceptance of objectification and illegitimacy of women that exist through endorsement of rape myths.
Bystanders can play a role in the outcome of an attempted sexual assault, particularly on university campuses where most sexual assaults occur in a social setting [6]. Bystanders may witness the initial distress of an individual being victimized by a perpetrator, the unconsented administration of drugs or alcohol to an individual by a perpetrator, a perpetrator who is expressing clear signs of sexual intent with an individual who is clearly intoxicated, and/or a perpetrator who is using physical force on an individual. In addition, bystanders can act as front-line support for an individual who has just been sexually assaulted. Thus, bystanders’ willingness to intervene is another factor closely linked to university students’ experiences of sexual assault.
Bystanders themselves can endorse rape myths. If an individual endorses rape myths such as, women who dress provocatively will eventually get into trouble, this individual may not identify an event as involving the victimization of a woman and therefore would be unlikely to intervene.
Using data from the Sex Climate Survey, developed and distributed to university students by Dr. Lucia O’Sullivan from the University of New Brunswick, I investigated rape myth endorsement and bystander willingness to intervene, and the associations between these factors.
Individuals who have experienced sexual assault endorse rape myths to a lesser degree than those who have not experienced sexual assault. This may be because victimized individuals of sexual assault recognize their innocence in their sexual assault experience more so than someone who has not been victimized. If those victimized are less likely to endorse beliefs that they are somehow responsible for their assault, they are better equipped to seek help and will potentially have better long-term psychological outcomes.
One might expect that individuals who have witnessed a sexual assault would also be less likely to endorse rape myths, due to a greater familiarity with and understanding of these experiences. Surprisingly, this is not the case. Individuals who have witnessed a sexual assault, even if it was the assault of a friend, are not less likely to endorse rape myths. This may be because witnessing an assault might heighten anxiety about sexual assault, leading the bystander to reinforce rape myths as a form of psychological defense. Bystanders might want to assume that there was something about the target of the assault or something that they did that made them somehow responsible—something notably different from what they themselves would have done.
Endorsement of rape myths does decrease a bystanders’ willingness to intervene when witnessing a sexual assault. This may be because when endorsement of rape myths is low, the bystander is able to recognize the helplessness and innocence of the victimized individual. When endorsement of rape myths is high, however, the bystander may not believe that the victimized individual is helpless or innocent.
This research highlights the critical influence of how women are presented in popular media and its contribution to the persistence of rape myth endorsement and victim blaming. Additionally, it strongly suggests that bystander’s attitudes and beliefs surrounding sexual assault must become a common consideration in prevention and intervention efforts towards eliminating sexual violence.
References
1. White House Task Force to Protect Students From Sexual Assault (US). (2014). Not alone: The first report of the White House task force to protect students from sexual assault. White House Task Force to Protect Students From Sexual Assault.
2. Jordan, C.E., Combs, J.L., & Smith, G.T. (2014). An exploration of sexual victimization and academic performance among college women. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 15(3), 191–200. doi: 10.1177/1524838014520637
3. Lonsway, K. A., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1994). Rape myths. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 18,
133-164. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-6402.1994.tb00448.x
4. Payne, D. L., Lonsway, K. A., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1999). Rape myth acceptance: Exploration of its structure and its measurement using the Illinois rape myth acceptance scale. Journal of Research in Personality, 33(1), 27-68.
5. Desai, A. D., Edwards, K. M., & Gidycz, C. A. (2008). Testing an integrative model of sexual aggression in college men. In A. C. Aosved (Chair), Sexual violence perpetration: Individual and contextual factors. Symposium conducted at the annual meeting of the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies, Orlando, FL.
6. Fisher B, Cullen F, Turner M. The Sexual Victimization of College Women. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice; 2001. Publication no. NCJ182369.
Historically, individuals victimized by sexual violence have been silenced and left without support for their trauma. Recently, a spotlight of public concern has revealed sexual assault to be one of the most common acts of violence experienced by young women. University students are particularly at risk, with one in five women experiencing sexual assault while attending university [1]. The combination of being in the gender and age group at greatest risk for sexual assault, the party culture associated with university, higher rates of alcohol consumption, and higher rates of incapacitated sexual assault put university women at significant risk for becoming victimized by sexual assault.
The consequences of sexual assault often extend far beyond the incident itself. Depression, suicidality, anxiety, and trouble sleeping are common social and emotional difficulties that individuals face after being assaulted. There are also academic consequences of being assaulted. Women who have been sexually assaulted before entering university, on average, have lower grade point averages than do those who have not been victimized [2].
Rates of sexual assault have remained fairly constant despite decades of information campaigns and prevention efforts. The critical question has since become: What factors best help us understand university students’ experiences of sexual assault? The perpetuation of rape myths have been identified as one such factor.
Rape myths are beliefs that decriminalize sexual assault and hold victims of sexual assault accountable for the perpetrator’s actions [3]. Examples of rape myths include: Men don’t usually intend to force sex on a woman, but sometimes they get too sexually carried away; A lot of women lead men on and then cry rape; and Women tend to exaggerate how much rape affects them [4]. The endorsement of rape myths by victimized individuals may result in belief that the incident was their fault or that the incident will not be taken seriously when reported. In contrast, endorsement of rape myths by perpetrators may lead them to excuse their behavior, believe they cannot control their behavior, or may prevent them from seeing the viciousness of their actions. Further, rape myth endorsement is a predictor of sexual violence perpetration [5].
Despite efforts to shift the perceived value of women to society, rape myths continue to be frequently endorsed. Current popular music lyrics, movies, and television shows are polluted with the degradation and sexualization of women, contributing to the acceptance of objectification and illegitimacy of women that exist through endorsement of rape myths.
Bystanders can play a role in the outcome of an attempted sexual assault, particularly on university campuses where most sexual assaults occur in a social setting [6]. Bystanders may witness the initial distress of an individual being victimized by a perpetrator, the unconsented administration of drugs or alcohol to an individual by a perpetrator, a perpetrator who is expressing clear signs of sexual intent with an individual who is clearly intoxicated, and/or a perpetrator who is using physical force on an individual. In addition, bystanders can act as front-line support for an individual who has just been sexually assaulted. Thus, bystanders’ willingness to intervene is another factor closely linked to university students’ experiences of sexual assault.
Bystanders themselves can endorse rape myths. If an individual endorses rape myths such as, women who dress provocatively will eventually get into trouble, this individual may not identify an event as involving the victimization of a woman and therefore would be unlikely to intervene.
Using data from the Sex Climate Survey, developed and distributed to university students by Dr. Lucia O’Sullivan from the University of New Brunswick, I investigated rape myth endorsement and bystander willingness to intervene, and the associations between these factors.
Individuals who have experienced sexual assault endorse rape myths to a lesser degree than those who have not experienced sexual assault. This may be because victimized individuals of sexual assault recognize their innocence in their sexual assault experience more so than someone who has not been victimized. If those victimized are less likely to endorse beliefs that they are somehow responsible for their assault, they are better equipped to seek help and will potentially have better long-term psychological outcomes.
One might expect that individuals who have witnessed a sexual assault would also be less likely to endorse rape myths, due to a greater familiarity with and understanding of these experiences. Surprisingly, this is not the case. Individuals who have witnessed a sexual assault, even if it was the assault of a friend, are not less likely to endorse rape myths. This may be because witnessing an assault might heighten anxiety about sexual assault, leading the bystander to reinforce rape myths as a form of psychological defense. Bystanders might want to assume that there was something about the target of the assault or something that they did that made them somehow responsible—something notably different from what they themselves would have done.
Endorsement of rape myths does decrease a bystanders’ willingness to intervene when witnessing a sexual assault. This may be because when endorsement of rape myths is low, the bystander is able to recognize the helplessness and innocence of the victimized individual. When endorsement of rape myths is high, however, the bystander may not believe that the victimized individual is helpless or innocent.
This research highlights the critical influence of how women are presented in popular media and its contribution to the persistence of rape myth endorsement and victim blaming. Additionally, it strongly suggests that bystander’s attitudes and beliefs surrounding sexual assault must become a common consideration in prevention and intervention efforts towards eliminating sexual violence.
References
1. White House Task Force to Protect Students From Sexual Assault (US). (2014). Not alone: The first report of the White House task force to protect students from sexual assault. White House Task Force to Protect Students From Sexual Assault.
2. Jordan, C.E., Combs, J.L., & Smith, G.T. (2014). An exploration of sexual victimization and academic performance among college women. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 15(3), 191–200. doi: 10.1177/1524838014520637
3. Lonsway, K. A., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1994). Rape myths. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 18,
133-164. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-6402.1994.tb00448.x
4. Payne, D. L., Lonsway, K. A., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1999). Rape myth acceptance: Exploration of its structure and its measurement using the Illinois rape myth acceptance scale. Journal of Research in Personality, 33(1), 27-68.
5. Desai, A. D., Edwards, K. M., & Gidycz, C. A. (2008). Testing an integrative model of sexual aggression in college men. In A. C. Aosved (Chair), Sexual violence perpetration: Individual and contextual factors. Symposium conducted at the annual meeting of the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies, Orlando, FL.
6. Fisher B, Cullen F, Turner M. The Sexual Victimization of College Women. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice; 2001. Publication no. NCJ182369.